Society has an interest in restricting the consumption of specific commodities, and particularly commodities that may be classified as addictive, whose unrestricted demand is high. As used in the context of this invention, addiction can be physiological (where withdrawal symptoms are noted upon cessation of use), psychological (where there is a behavioral urge to use/abuse the commodity, but there is no clear-cut withdrawal complex), or and metaphorical (where demand remains high in spite of recognized long-term negative consequences). An example of a physiological addiction might include tobacco/nicotine. An example of metaphorical addiction might include the use of large and increasing amounts of petroleum products as a fuel, notwithstanding price increases and recognized negative health and environmental consequences, which was characterized by the President of the United States as an “addiction” in an address on Jan. 31, 2006.
Society's interest in restricting the use of such commodities may clash with a libertarian ethos such as that of the United States, where individuals are generally free to do as they choose, as long as they do not harm others. This clash manifests itself in the near free availability of specific commodities whose cost to individuals does not necessarily reflect the aggregate cost to society. Two examples are cigarettes and gasoline, both of which are “addictive” in some sense.
Cigarettes create negative implications for health care. They are highly physiologically addictive. Most smokers start their habit in adolescence and struggle to quit, even though over 80% express a strong desire to quit. Smoking has been identified as one of the major preventable causes of disease. The costs created by those who smoke are borne directly by all who purchase health insurance and indirectly by those who pay taxes (paying into government subsidized health care programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid in the United States). If fewer people smoked, fewer people would become ill, and more people would stay healthier longer. The cost of health care for all would decrease. The price smokers pay to smoke is far lower than the aggregate cost paid by society to deal with smokers' health problems. Further, when smokers make their purchases, the money they pay primarily benefits manufacturers and vendors of cigarettes, and does not substantively contribute to payment of health care costs relating to smoking.
Gasoline is also a commodity that creates problems when consumed excessively. Most countries import petroleum and/or petroleum products from geopolitically volatile regions. Because of that, foreign policy often is dictated by energy policy, as opposed to the other way around. Many countries (particularly those that are net importers of petroleum) lose their diplomatic leverage because they are dependent on suppliers. Further, burning “too much” gasoline has negative consequence for the environment and global climate. Again, the cost paid by individuals for gasoline in many countries does not adequately reflect the aggregate cost paid by society. If nothing else, a strong military must be formed to ensure a steady supply of imported petroleum for those countries. If that supply is cut off, it could paralyze a country's economy rather quickly.
Societies can diminish demand for such commodities in a number of ways, including (a) education, (b) creation of mandated standards and laws (such as laws preventing selling cigarettes to minors; or requiring automobile manufacturers to manufacture vehicles that meet minimum mileage standards), and (c) manipulation of price, most notably by taxation. In the case of taxation, items ordinarily are taxed in a uniform way, regardless of whether the consumer purchases a small amount or large amount of the commodity.